The Framing of Sociological Thought
Contents
- Enlightenment Era: The Age of Reason
- The Two Monumental Forces: The French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution
- The Impact of the Developments of Enlightenment on the Precursors to Sociological Thought
- Conclusion: Enlightenment and Classical Sociology
Introduction
History is an interplay between the present and the past, providing a window into understanding modern society. It is a tool that makes it possible to comprehend current events in a lot more subtle and clear way. Therefore, having a thorough understanding of the historical circumstances surrounding the development of this social science discipline is necessary in order to comprehend the central ideas and core ideas of contemporary sociological thought. Scholars like Robert Nisbet and T.B. Bottomore, in their 1978 book "A History of Sociological Analysis," explicitly support the benefits of such a strategy:
“First, a historical study that takes into account the social and cultural context in which a particular body of theoretical ideas has developed should enable us to discriminate more precisely between the evolution of the theoretical concepts and propositions themselves, and the influence upon them of various social and cultural interests- or in other words, to distinguish between the scientific and the ideological content of a system of sociological thought. Second, because the objects of sociological analysis include not only universal characteristics of human societies but also historical and changing phenomena, a history of the various approaches and theories reveals the extent to which many of them, at least in some aspects, have a restricted and specific scope inasmuch as they deal with the facts and problems of particular historical periods.” (1978: xiv)
So, in this post, we'll be looking at the circumstances that gave rise to the field of sociology as a social science. We will be attempting to provide answers to a wide range of questions, including what were the major social and political circumstances that sparked the ideas that motivated some of the classical sociologists, who the key thinkers of the era were, and which brand of the period's dominant intellectual tendencies they adhered to. We'll be looking at how the Enlightenment influenced contemporary European philosophy. We would also be examining how the French and Industrial Revolutions influenced the underlying currents of sociological thought at the same period. All of this will be done while focusing on some of the predecessors of the three sociology's founding thinkers, namely Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max Weber, and how the former influenced the latter.
Enlightenment Era: The Age of Reason
Although sociology did not exist during the Age of Enlightenment, its roots can still be found there because sociological thought was not excluded from this time period. The waning clerical power that dogged the middle ages marked this period. It was a moment when the legitimacy of the Church was contested and the metaphysical schools of thought that had characterised the previous century began to fade. In this century, philosophers and scientists assumed the role of modern priests, and science served as their universal religion. A critical mindset was prevalent at the time, one that valued statements supported by empirical data and was curious and open to discovery. Such a way of understanding led to the challenging of prevailing ideas and ushered in a time when belief was questioned. Some of the concepts backed by the Church were frequently put into reality in this manner. It should come as no surprise that in their efforts to secularise ethics, these thinkers fought a tenacious battle against prejudice and superstition.
The publication of Copernicus' 'On the Revolution of the Celestial Orbs' in 1543 marks the beginning of this string of critiques of mediaeval Christian theology (1473 - 1544). The dethronement of the earth from its place as the centre of the universe is what makes this work so remarkable. The widely held belief that the earth loved its place at the centre of the universe and gave the sun this location was refuted by the heliocentric theory. Additionally, it was discovered that the earth rotates during the day and revolves once a year around the sun. The release of this document was delayed because such a view did not align with the priestly perspective, which gave man a significant position in this cosmos.
Kepler delivered the second devastating blow to religious power (1571 – 1630). His three laws controlling planetary motion, which destroyed the preconceptions and prejudices of the time, were his greatest contribution to science. For instance, the aesthetic bias favouring circles was abandoned due to the discovery that planets had elliptical orbits.
Galileo launched the third significant assault (1564 – 1642). Galileo brought attention to the significance of acceleration. He predicted Newton's first law of motion and developed the law of free falling bodies. He is connected to the law of inertia as well. Additionally, he made some astonishing astronomical observations. He, for example, was responsible for the discovery of Jupiter's satellites.
Finally, there was Newton (1642–1727), who articulated the law of universal gravitation and developed the three laws of motion. Newton also discussed force. In fact, Russell writes, "Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night" in "History of Western Philosophy" (2004). Newton was created when God said, "Let there be light." (2004: 495)
All of these advancements significantly altered the outlook of the educated man. It sparked in him the value of truth, the force of reason, and the faith in progress—all three ideas being secular and logical.
As a result, four fundamental ideas about the Enlightenment are revealed, and Robert Bierstedt1 has clearly formulated these ideas.
“There was first of all the replacement of the supernatural by the natural, of religion by science, of divine decree by natural law, and of priests by philosophers. Second, was the exaltation of reason guided by experience, as the instrument that would solve all problems, whether social, political or even religious. Third was the belief in the progress of the human race. And finally there was humane and humanitarian regard for the rights of man, and especially the right to be free from the oppression and corruption of governments – a right claimed in blood in the French Revolution” (1978: 5).
The Two Monumental Forces: The French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution
The period also saw other political and social revolutions, so it wasn't simply the realm of science that underwent change. Thus, a revolt for democracy took place, leading to the French Revolution. The Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth century is the second significant turning point in history.
These have been brought forth by Robert Nisbet in ‘The Sociological Tradition’, 1993.
- The French RevolutionThe concepts of the previous century underwent a dramatic ideological shift with the French Revolution. Some of the events that occurred at this time show this to be the case. Consequently, this revolution (which began in 1789) brought about a new social structure. The guiding ideals of this system were established to be liberty, equality, and freedom. By abolishing the exploitative feudal system that defined mediaeval France, it sought to relieve human misery and served as a sign of equality. As a result of the elimination of guilds and trade companies, this revolution also granted man the freedom to engage in any profession. The family system underwent a significant transformation as well. Divorce was now a possibility. Paternal authority lost some of its sway and authority. The father had no choice but to leave his property to his offspring. To ensure that education will last, steps were made. The Revolution had an effect on religion as well. The State and religion were kept separate. The government seized the Church's belongings. But more significantly, France underwent a change from monarchy to democracy.
- The Industrial RevolutionThe process of transitioning England's economy from one controlled mostly by agriculture and handicrafts to one dominated primarily by industry and machine was brought about by the Industrial Revolution, which occurred there between 1760 and 1840. Everything was transformed, including the components utilised in production, the tools used in production, and the organisational methods employed in production. As a result, a new class of employees emerged who were mostly denied the benefits of their labour, were exploited by their bosses, and lived pitifully in a state of abject poverty. Land, which was so significant during the feudal age, lost its significance to capital at the same time and gained the property of only being a factor of production. Additionally, a sense of community was lost throughout this period. The person was cut off from his peers and felt alienated. Consequently, there was a rise in individualism during this period. This was a significant side effect of urbanisation as a lifestyle.
The Impact of the Developments of Enlightenment on the Precursors to Sociological Thought
The Industrial Revolution, French Revolution, and Scientific Revolution of the Age of Enlightenment all contributed to the advancement of sociological theory. This can be traced to the development of a few important themes and concepts that attracted the attention of philosophers from three schools of social thought, specifically the "liberals2," "radicals3," and "conservatives4".
As Nisbet notes in "The Sociological Tradition" (1993) with reference to the French Revolution:
“Without exception, from Comte to Durkheim, they gave the French Revolution a decisive role in the making of those social conditions with which they were immediately concerned. Thus, it was social disorder engendered by the revolution that Comte specifically pointed to as the background of his own work. It was, Comte thought, the “false dogmas” of the Revolution – equalitarianism, popular sovereignty, and individualism – that, above even the new industrial system, were responsible for the spread of moral disorganization in Europe. Tocqueville was haunted by the Revolution; it is the real theme of his study of American democracy, and he planned a long work, specifically on its effects. Le Play repeatedly attributes to the Revolution the chief causes of the distressed condition of the working classes in mid-century, as well as the secularization of education, the individualization of property and the acceleration of bureaucracy that he so disliked. At the end of the century, Durkheim is still concerned with what he calls the Revolution’s replacement of “corporate egoism” by “individual egoism”. The intellectual impact of the Revolution was hardly less general in Germany. Of Hegel’s fascination with it there is ample record, and it was undoubtedly the dramatic rationalization of law undertaken by the revolutionaries that was the immediate impulse of Savigny’s studies”. Otto von Gierke found in the Revolution’s destructive impact on such intermediate associations as monastery, guild and commune the principal inspiration of his monumental study of state and association in European history. And Leo Straus is undoubtedly correct in his statement that Max Weber’s basic categories of authority – traditional and rational and charismatic – owe much to the Revolution and its impact on the old order. Mosca, deeply impressed by his reading of Taine, took from the Revolution the essential elements of his theory of power. Michels was not less affected in the formulation of his “law of oligarchy” and his critique of “democratic centralism”.” (1993: 32 - 33)
The Industrial Revolution was also as motivating and succeeded in drawing these academic branches' focus to a variety of topics. Thus, the radicals and conservatives were undoubtedly interested in the terrible situation that the working class was in. The roots of conventional organisations and structures like the hamlet, the guild, and the family are thinning, according to scholars like Bonald, Hegel, and Marx. In this framework, Marx came to be seen as the prophet of the view regarding the drawbacks of a capitalist society. In his Communist Manifesto, Marx provided a detailed account of the changes brought about by the rise of capitalism, including how it upended the preexisting social structure and the social relations that were under its control. Additionally, a sense of community was lost throughout this period. The person was cut off from his peers and felt alienated. Consequently, there was a rise in individualism during this period. This was a significant urbanis accompaniment. Both the conservatives and the radicals observed how technology and the factory system together brought about a change in the relationships between men and women and how they threatened the traditional family. But when it came to issues of property, there was no longer any unanimity between conservative and radical viewpoints. The radicals called for the abolishment of private property, while the conservatives considered property as the last vestiges of a tradition marked by the family, the church, and the state. Strangely enough, though, both conservatives and revolutionaries disliked large-scale industrial property. These two schools of thought shared a mistrust of industrial capital, which was another area of similarity. Contrary to conservatives, for whom alienation is inherent in this type of capital, radicals believed that it was necessary for the advancement of socialism. Manchester came to represent the prototypical responses of these two schools to the new industrial order. Urbanism was despised by both conservatives and revolutionaries. However, radicals' disgust was only half-hearted, and as a result, it was characterised by an urban mindset.
Armed with this foundational knowledge, the time is right to examine the works of some of the founders of sociological thought: French philosopher Montesquieu is well-known for being the focus of Durkheim's PhD dissertation. He claims that a person is just a tool in the "universal movement." He had social interests in things like laws, families, marriage, suicide, etiquette, the environment, religion, interpersonal relationships, and other things. Additionally, he studied numerous social institutions using a comparative methodology. A key character in the conservative movement, Edmund Burke thought that the French Revolution could wipe out all of Europe if permitted to reach its full potential. He provided an organic and historical understanding of society. Hegel was inspired by his ideas about the nation and the state as he worked to reconcile the Enlightenment's call for reason with the conservative idea of "historical progress."
Immanuel Kant introduces "transcendental philosophy" in Critique of Pure Reason (1998). He makes a distinction between a priori cognitions (which are unaffected by prior knowledge) and posterior cognitions in this book (which derive from experience). Additionally, he separated analytical judgements (the judgments of clarity) from synthetic judgments (the judgments of amplification). His conception of transcendental philosophy, sometimes known as the philosophy of speculative reason, follows. The neo-Kantian thinker Max Weber was influenced by these concepts. Romanticism is often connected with Jean Jacques Rousseau. His writings included references to entertainment, physical and moral manifestations of inequality, and education. His idea of the "universal will" is very similar to Durkheim's idea of the "conscience collective."
A key contributor to the development of the rational philosophy was Rene Descartes. Descartes introduces his "Cartesian doubt" methodology in his Meditations on First Philosophy (2008). He questions everything, including his own existence! Additionally, he contends that there is a distinction between the intellect and the body. In order to free ourselves from biases and prejudices, he comes to the conclusion that it is our senses that trick us. As a result, we should only trust our minds. Thus, we can find the roots of some of the concepts that form the core of optimistic thought in Cartesian philosophy, such as the desire to free oneself from preconceptions.
John Locke was another theorist whose ideas influenced the scientific process. According to him, our minds are initially empty or "tabula rasa" and concepts only come into being as a result of experience. This concept served as the foundation for empirical approaches. David Hume developed these concepts much further. Hume argued that our ideas are preceded by our impressions, which are derived from our experiences. He did this by making an analytical distinction between impression and ideas.
John Locke was another theorist whose ideas influenced the scientific process. According to him, our minds are initially empty or "tabula rasa" and concepts only come into being as a result of experience. This concept served as the foundation for empirical approaches. David Hume developed these concepts much further. Hume argued that our ideas are preceded by our impressions, which are obtained from our experiences. He did this by making an analytical distinction between impression and ideas.
According to Adam Ferguson, studying people is really about studying groups of people. The study of society must also be devoid of hypotheses and guesses, and should only rely on observations. He classified social progress into three stages: barbaric, barbarian, and polished. He also listed the benefits and drawbacks of division of labour in this context. He didn't like organic analogies very much. He made the case that conflict is beneficial and even necessary for society. The conservative tradition is associated with Alexis de Tocqueville. He lacked faith in the political system. His writings raise the possibility that equality, if left unchecked by important societal institutions, could have a negative impact on liberty.
The effects of the factory system and the division of labour alarmed him. He sees religion as the cornerstone of civilization. He does, however, exhibit some liberal tendencies. His liberal doctrine makes this clear. All types of knowledge, in Louis de Bonald's view, are social products. Like Descartes, he believes that ideas are inherent, but they are ingrained in society rather than the agency. He promoted the idea that man is a social creature that is assimilated into society via the acquisition of its culture rather than the idea that he is a natural person. He sought to show how society had divine roots (much like Durkheim).
He supported the roles of the state, church, and family. He also had a critical position toward the industrial-bourgeoisie society. Joseph de Maistre provided a diatribe on the Enlightenment, similar to Bonald. Joseph de Maistre provided a diatribe on the Enlightenment, similar to Bonald. He shared the view that man was a social animal. Thus, it should come as no surprise that Maistre was troubled by Rousseau's claim that man's natural life has a "amoral" nature. He thought that diverse facets of culture served social purposes. Saint Simon is acknowledged as the founding father of sociology together with Comte. In actuality, Bonald had an influence on both authors. He is occasionally credited with founding socialism.
He claimed that the stability of the mediaeval era was brought about by the fact that religion was practised by all people. He took it upon himself to research the new social structure that emerged when science replaced religion; this was to be the focus of his "social physiology." Even if the new components of this social order may fight, in his opinion, they all work together to form the total. The "Law of Three Stages" by August Comte, which describes how society advances from a theological to a metaphysical to a positive stage, is well known. He thought his "social physics" would create order from chaos. Comte, in contrast to most conservatives, was not particularly critical of the Enlightenment. This explains why he believed "social dynamics" owed the Enlightenment just as much as "social statics" did the post-revolutionary right. He will see the development of correct sociology.
Conclusion: Enlightenment and Classical Sociology
This post made an effort to chart the historical development of the numerous circumstances that fostered the sociological seeds in their womb. The Enlightenment Era, or the age of reason, which brought about a scientific revolution that resulted in many shocking discoveries by figures like Copernicus and Newton, fanned the flame of social thought. As a result, a number of preconceptions were dispelled, and the power of the Church was undermined. There was also a movement for democracy, thus these advances weren't limited to the field of science.
The clergy establishment also suffered greatly during the French revolution (for it entailed the confiscation of the Church property and the separation of religion from matters of the state). The family had a huge transformation as well. The political system also underwent alteration as a result of this. For liberty, equality, and freedom, there was a shout. Democracy triumphed against monarchy. Feudalism was also abolished during this period. One of the effects of the Industrial Revolution was capitalism. The Revolution sparked a number of developments that attracted the attention of the philosophers of the day, including the diminishing status of the worker, the rise of urbanisation, the abolition of tradition, and the changes brought about by the technical system. Both conservatives and radicals remarked on these issues.
Furthermore, several of the concepts that would later serve as the cornerstone of the classical sociological tradition of Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and Karl Marx were developed during this period. These three main individuals established diverse sociological traditions by drawing inspiration from these Enlightenment ideals as well as the contemporaneous sociopolitical and economic conditions.
Thus, for instance, Durkheim became one of the founders of the functionalist tradition, which was continued by scholars like Talcott Parsons and R.K. Merton; Marx became the proponent of the conflict school, which was continued by scholars like Ludwig Gumplowicz and Lester F. Ward; and the interpretivist tradition, which was continued by theorists like Alfred Schutz Furthermore, Karl Marx was particularly passionate about the reflections on the industrial society. As we saw above, this was also a period in which societies were being compared, methods for conducting value-free research were being developed, social order was being worried about, and the value of society over the group was being realised. These themes would later become the foundation of Durkheimian sociology.
Finally, as was already indicated, Weber's conception of authority has its roots in the French Revolution. Immanuel Kant also had a significant impact on him. In conclusion, the Enlightenment served as the inspiration for many of the important concepts that would later form the basis of sociological theory. Intense discussions over competing models for the normative framework of society, the state, and the economy also took place during this period. Should a state's claim over its citizens come before a person's freedoms and rights? What should the state's position be in relation to the concept of the welfare society? What does modernity actually entail, and how has it affected interpersonal interactions in society?
There was also uncertainty about the direction of change and the moral order of things in society due to the old feudal order now falling apart and the concurrent emergence of mercantile capitalism. The development of capitalism's industrial mode and the unplanned expansion of metropolitan areas coincided with a decline in interpersonal and societal relationships, which marked a turning point in human history. Before now, human and governmental behaviour was dominated by religion and theology. Now utilitarian logic and instrumental rationality had taken its place. Additionally, the emergence of new nation states that lauded the total subordination of their subjects to them brought to new methods of bureaucratic and rationalised control over the populace.
The majority of nation states in Western Europe adopted a citizenship charter that encouraged market-based capitalism. Most pre-modern philosophies collided with the contemporary world view in such a setting.
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